Research & science

Anyone reading about research peptides online runs into references to "studies" constantly. Those references only mean something once it is clear what kind of research is involved. This page provides the framework for judging that.

The ladder from laboratory to human

Research into a substance usually follows a fixed order:

1. In vitro — experiments in a test tube or cell culture. Cheap and fast, but

far removed from a living organism.

1. Animal models — experiments in mice or rats, for example. These show what a

substance does in a complete organism, but translation to humans often fails.

1. Phase 1 — first research in humans, small group, focused on safety and

tolerability.

1. Phase 2 — larger group, focused on efficacy and dose range.
2. Phase 3 — large comparative trials forming the basis of a registration

application.

1. Assessment and registration — an authority such as the EMA or FDA weighs

all data and decides on authorisation.

Most substances circulating as "research peptides" sit at step 1 or 2. That is not a detail: it means there is no data on safety in humans.

Why animal studies are not evidence in humans

A large share of substances that look promising in animal studies still fail in human research — through disappointing efficacy, through side effects, or because the effect works out differently in people. A claim such as "research shows that..." therefore only means something when it states which research, in whom, and with what design.

Judging a publication quickly

• What kind of study is it? A randomised controlled trial carries more weight than an observation or a case report.
• How many participants? Small groups give unreliable outcomes.
• Is there a control group? Without comparison, an effect cannot be attributed to the substance.
• Has it been replicated? One study is an indication, not a conclusion.
• Who funded it? Interests should be declared.
• Is it peer-reviewed? A preprint has not yet been assessed by peers.

Where to search yourself

• PubMed — a database of scientific publications in the biomedical sciences.
• ClinicalTrials.gov — a register of ongoing and completed clinical trials.
• EMA and FDA — product information and assessment reports for registered medicines.

Every substance page on this site lists its sources at the bottom, so you can read further yourself.

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See also: What are peptides?, Quality & provenance, Glossary.